A larval zebrafish assay of the potency of sensory irritants correlates well with human TRPA1 activation and irritancy data (2026)

Abstract

TRPA1 receptor agonists can cause profound sensory irritation in humans, maximised in the riot control agents 2-chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile (CS), dibenzo[b,f][1,4]oxazepine (CR) and 2-chloroacetophenone (CN). Assessment of chemical irritants acting at TRPA1 receptors is challenging, relying largely on in vivo models. There is therefore a need for predictive alternatives that can capture human-relevant irritancy responses whilst supporting the 3Rs (refinement, replacement, reduction) of animal research. Here, we establish and validate 4 days post-fertilisation larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a tractable model for TRPA1-mediated sensory irritation. Larval zebrafish exhibit profound hyperlocomotion in aversion to TRPA1 agonists, characterised by a bell-shaped concentration-response. This was seen across the TRPA1 agonists tested which were: CS, CR, CN, the bromo analogue of CN (2-bromoacetophenone), benzyl chloride, benzyl bromide, 2-chlorobenzaldehyde, trans-cinnamaldehyde and allyl isothiocyanate. Relative potencies in this assay mirrored both in vitro human TRPA1 data and historic human trial irritancy measurements, indicating strong translational validity. Additional experiments showed that hydrolysis products of CS and CR that are non-irritant to humans – malononitrile and CR lactam – caused reduced irritancy in larval zebrafish. 2-Bromoacetophenone, which is much more reactive than CN to nucleophiles, was toxic to the zebrafish larvae, consistent with its stronger alkylating action, supporting the predictivity of this model. The TRPA1 antagonist HC-030031 ameliorated the irritancy effect of CN, confirming a TRPA1-dependent mechanism for the observed hyperlocomotion. This research positions larval zebrafish as a predictive, ethically favourable platform for evaluating TRPA1 agonists. Beyond improving assessment of irritant potency, this approach provides a foundation for discovery of novel TRPA1-targeted analgesics.

Keywords

Behaviour; Zebrafish larvae; TRPA1; Sensory irritant; 3Rs; Riot control agents